of the counts and bishops, of the marquises
and counts, was banished from the land; and the proudest nobles were
persuaded or compelled to desert their solitary castles, and to embrace
the more honorable character of freemen and magistrates. The legislative
authority was inherent in the general assembly; but the executive powers
were intrusted to three consuls, annually chosen from the three orders
of captains, valvassors, [144] and commons, into which the republic was
divided. Under the protection of equal law, the labors of agriculture
and commerce were gradually revived; but the martial spirit of the
Lombards was nourished by the presence of danger; and as often as the
bell was rung, or the standard [145] erected, the gates of the city
poured forth a numerous and intrepid band, whose zeal in their own cause
was soon guided by the use and discipline of arms. At the foot of these
popular ramparts, the pride of the Caesars was overthrown; and the
invincible genius of liberty prevailed over the two Frederics, the
greatest princes of the middle age; the first, superior perhaps in
military prowess; the second, who undoubtedly excelled in the softer
accomplishments of peace and learning.

[Footnote 142: After boiling away the flesh. The caldrons for that
purpose were a necessary piece of travelling furniture; and a German who
was using it for his brother, promised it to a friend, after it should
have been employed for himself, (Schmidt, tom. iii. p. 423, 424.) The
same author observes that the whole Saxon line was extinguished in
Italy, (tom. ii. p. 440.)]

[Footnote 1421: Compare Sismondi, Histoire des Republiques Italiannes.
Hallam Middle Ages. Raumer, Geschichte der Hohenstauffen. Savigny,
Geschichte des Romischen Rechts, vol. iii. p. 19 with the authors
quoted.--M.]

[Footnote 143: Otho, bishop of Frisingen, has left an important passage
on the Italian cities, (l. ii. c. 13, in Script. Ital. tom. vi. p.
707-710: ) and the rise, progress, and government of these republics
are perfectly illustrated by Muratori, (Antiquitat. Ital. Medii Aevi,
tom. iv. dissert xlv.--lii. p. 1-675. Annal. tom. viii. ix. x.)]

[Footnote 144: For these titles, see Selden, (Titles of Honor, vol. iii.
part 1 p. 488.) Ducange, (Gloss. Latin. tom. ii. p. 140, tom. vi. p.
776,) and St. Marc, (Abrege Chronologique, tom. ii. p. 719.)]

[Footnote 145: The Lombards invented and used the carocium, a standard
planted on a car or wagon, drawn by a te