and a consequent weakening
of the empire was involved; to avoid this Great Britain seems to have
been willing to make any other concessions that were necessary. The
mother country sought to avoid disruption at all costs. But the time had
passed when any such adjustment might have been possible. The Americans
now flatly refused to treat of peace upon any footing except that of
independent equality. The British, being in no position to continue the
struggle, were obliged to yield and to declare in the first article of
the treaty of peace that "His Britannic Majesty acknowledges the said
United States... to be free, sovereign, and independent states."

With France the relationship of the United States was clear and friendly
enough at the time. The American War of Independence had been brought
to a successful issue with the aid of France. In the treaty of alliance
which had been signed in 1781 had been agreed that neither France nor
the United States should, without the consent of the other, make peace
with Great Britain. More than that, in 1781, partly out of gratitude but
largely as a result of clever manipulation of factions in Congress by
the French Minister in Philadelphia, the Chevalier de la Luzerne, the
American peace commissioners had been instructed "to make the most
candid and confidential communications upon all subjects to the
ministers of our generous ally, the King of France; to undertake nothing
in the negotiations for peace or truce without their knowledge and
concurrence; and ultimately to govern yourselves by their advice and
opinion."* If France had been actuated only by unselfish motives in
supporting the colonies in their revolt against Great Britain, these
instructions might have been acceptable and even advisable. But such was
not the case. France was working not so much with philanthropic purposes
or for sentimental reasons as for the restoration to her former position
of supremacy in Europe. Revenge upon England was only a part of a larger
plan of national aggrandizement.

* "Secret Journals of Congress." June 15, 1781.

The treaty with France in 1778 had declared that war should be continued
until the independence of the United States had been established, and it
appeared as if that were the main purpose of the alliance. For her
own good reasons France had dragged Spain into the struggle. Spain,
of course, fought to cripple Great Britain and not to help the United
States. In return for