t, to carry on his feud with both
branches of the House of Habsburg, and the empire sank lower and
lower, German princes and generals betraying their country to the
national enemy. In 1643, when Richelieu was dead, a chance of peace
began. Five years later it was concluded for Germany, at Munster and
Osnabruck, not for Spain. The Empire lost much in population and
territory, which were taken by France; still more in authority, which
fell from the emperors hands into the hands of the several princes,
now virtually sovereign and subject to no control. The peace of
Westphalia gave no accession to the Protestant interest.

In extension, the Protestants lost by the Thirty Years' War. They
lost one-half of the Palatinate, incorporated in Bavaria; and they
submitted to exclusion from the Austrian dominions, all but Silesia.
Calvinists were now admitted to equal rights with the rest.
Protestants and Catholics recovered what they had possessed in 1624.
Therefore the cause of the insurgent Bohemians was abandoned, and the
men who were thrown out of the window triumphed in the end.
Concerning liberty of conscience, not a word was said. The power of
the interfering State was not shorn, but the idea that the division of
Christendom might be healed by force passed away from the minds of
men. It had taken thirty years of incessant bloodshed to extinguish
the Counter-Reformation.

XI

THE PURITAN REVOLUTION

AT THE death of Elizabeth, England separated from the Continent
in politics, and moved thenceforth in a different direction. Long
before, political observers like Commynes and Fortescue recognised the
distinctive character and the superiority of the insular institutions;
but these were not strong enough to withstand the Tudors, and the work
had to be begun over again. It was begun, upon the ancient ways, with
tradition and precedent; and when that was found to be not quite
convincing, it was pursued by means of new, general, and revolutionary
principles. The combination, or alteration, of these methods of
policy is the peculiar note of the times before us.

When King James of Scotland became King James of England, the country
obtained the benefit of being an island, protected by the sea. There
was no longer a hostile and warlike neighbour, compelling military
preparation and the concentration of power, which made foreign
governments absolute. An English officer once congratulated Moltke on
the splendid army whi