tart and hastens the
learning process considerably. "Learning by imitation", then, is, more
properly, "learning by observation followed by trial and error" and
the reason so little of it appears in animals is their lack of
observation.

_Learning by thinking_ depends on observation, since in {320} thought
we make use of facts previously observed. Seldom, unless in the
chimpanzee and other manlike apes, do we see an animal that appears to
be thinking. The animal is always doing, or waiting, or sleeping. He
seems too impulsive to stop and think. But a man may observe something
in the present problem that calls previous observations to mind, and
by mentally combining observations made at different times may figure
out the solution before beginning motor manipulation. Usually,
however, some manipulation of the trial and error sort is needed
before the thought-out solution will work perfectly.

Sometimes mental rehearsal of a performance assists in learning it, as
we see in the beginner at automobile driving, who, while lying in bed
after his first day's experience, mentally goes through the motions of
starting the engine and then the car, and finds that this "absent
treatment" makes the car easier to manage the next day.

In summing up the points of superiority of human over animal learning,
we may note that--

1. Man is perhaps a quicker learner, anyway, without regard to his
better methods of learning. This, however, is open to doubt, in view
of the very rapid learning by animals of such reactions as the
avoidance of a place where they have been hurt.

2. Man is a better observer, and this is the great secret of his quick
learning. He is especially strong in observing relationships, or
"principles" as we often call them.

3. He has more control over his impulses, and so finds time and energy
for observing and thinking.

4. He is able to work mentally with things that are not present; he
remembers things he has seen, puts together facts observed at
different times, thinks over problems that are not actually
confronting him at the moment, and maps out plans of action.

{321}

The Learning of Complex Practical Performances

A great deal of light has been thrown on the learning process by
psychological studies of the course of improvement in mastering such
trades as telegraphy and typewriting.

A student of telegraphy was tested once a week to see how rapidly he
could send a message, and also how rapidly he c