, value, that is, towards the survival of the
individual or of the race. But this is an assumption, and it seems not
to be borne out by actual observations of instinctive behavior, since,
along with the definitely useful reactions, others occur that would
seem to have no survival value. Perhaps the crowing of the rooster at
dawn would be a case in point; or the elaborate bowing that is
observed in some kinds of birds. And there are the less definite,
rather random movements of squirming, kicking, running about,
wrinkling up the face, etc., that appear in young animals. We may well
hesitate before definitely asserting that these movements are of no
use for survival, but at least their use is not obvious, and there is
no reason for assuming that all instinctive behavior must necessarily
be useful.

To be sure, the "struggle for existence" would eliminate individuals
who behaved in ways that seriously handicapped them in procuring food
or escaping from enemies; and therefore we should not expect to find
really harmful instincts preserved in the race. But a mode of behavior
might be neutral in this respect, or even slightly disadvantageous,
and yet not be weeded out unless the struggle for existence were very
keen.

{115}

The main point is that the psychologist should take instinctive
behavior as he finds it, and not allow himself to be prejudiced by the
assumption that instinct must necessarily be useful. That has to be
shown in each case, not assumed at the outset.

The So-called Instincts of Self-preservation and of Reproduction

You will hear it stated, by some, that there are just two instincts,
and that all instinctive behavior belongs under the head of one or the
other of these two. The one is the instinct to preserve one's
individual life, and the other is the instinct to propagate the
species. Mating, nesting and care of the young come under the
reproductive instinct, while feeding, flight from danger, and shunning
extreme heat or cold are modes of self-preservation. This seems
logical enough, but it is very bad psychology. It amounts to a
classification of native reactions from an external point of view,
without any consideration of the way the individual is organized.

Perhaps the most obvious objection to these two supposedly
all-inclusive instincts is found in what has just been said, to the
effect that some instinctive behavior has no known survival value.
This amounts to saying that some instincts