Germany
one-fifth.

Iquique has the largest shipping trade. From this port about fifty
million dollars' worth of nitrates and three million dollars' worth of
iodine are exported yearly.

CHAPTER VII

THE CZAR'S GREATER DOMAIN

No other parts of the globe have been subject to so many kaleidoscopic
changes by migrations during the past eight centuries as northern Asia
and eastern Europe. In comparison both India and China have remained
stable for many centuries.

Before the Christian era, Mongol tribes of northeastern Asia began their
westward march, tarrying a few centuries along the way in the most
fertile places and gathering force by multiplication until the
thirteenth century. Then like a mighty flood they poured into eastern
Europe, carrying everywhere in their pathway subjugation, devastation,
and slaughter. During the early part of these migrations, the great
Roman Empire trembled as she beheld the irresistible moving hosts, and
her downfall was hastened by the ponderous blows dealt her by these
barbarians.

In the early part of the thirteenth century, after the Mongol ruler
Genghis Khan had overrun southern Russia, he turned northward and
captured the cities of Moscow, Vladimir, and Ryazan, putting to death
many of the inhabitants by the most fiendish methods of torture.
Thousands were slaughtered merely to wreak vengeance for the strong
resistance offered by the besieged before surrendering. Hundreds of
thousands of the Russians both high and low were made slaves. Wives of
the nobles who had been richly clad and adorned with jewels became
servants of their conquerors.

[Illustration: Fishing for sturgeon through the ice of the Ural River.
Catching the material for caviare]

In 1272 most of the Tartars became Muhammadans and henceforth became
more intolerant of the Christians, thousands of whom they burned alive
or tortured. This oppressive yoke was borne for nearly three hundred
years. Then Ivan III succeeded in breaking the Tartar rule forever.
Mongol tribes, however, remained a disturbing element on the border for
two hundred years thereafter.

In the early part of the fourteenth century Othman, a Mongol, founded
the Ottoman empire, which then consisted of only the western part of
Asia Minor. His son and successor conquered Gallipoli in 1354, thereby
gaining a foothold in Europe, and during the next two centuries
successive Turkish rulers made large additions to the empire until it
embrac