(p. 138)
increased the scope of Geometry and Arithmetic, and added the study of
Algebra.

The Grammar taught in the universities assumed a knowledge of such a
text-book as that of Alexander de Villa Dei, and consisted of an
analysis of the systems of popular grammarians, based on the section
_De barbarismo_ in the _Ars Grammatica_ of AElius Donatus, a
fourth-century grammarian, whose work became universally used
throughout Europe. Latin poets were read in the grammar schools, and
served for grammatical and philological expositions in the
universities, and the study of Rhetoric depended largely on the
treatises of Cicero. The "Dialectic" of the _Trivium_ was the real
interest of the medieval student among the ancient seven subjects, but
the curriculum in Arts came to include also the three Philosophies,
Physical, Moral, and Metaphysical. The arms of the University of
Oxford consist of a book with seven clasps surrounded by three crowns,
the clasps representing the seven Liberal Arts and the crowns the
three Philosophies. The universities were schools of philosophy,
mental and physical, and the attention of students in Arts was chiefly
directed to the logic, metaphysics, physics, and ethics of Aristotle.
Up to the twelfth century, Aristotle was known only through the
translations into Latin of the sections of the _Organon_, (p. 139)
entitled _De Interpretatione_ and _Categoriae_, and through the
logical works of Boethius. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the
range of medieval studies was greatly enlarged by the introduction of
other works of Aristotle from translations partly from the Arabic and
partly direct from the Greek. The conservatism of the University of
Paris at first forbade the study of the new Aristotle, but it soon
became universal in the medieval universities. In addition to the
works of Aristotle, as they were known in the Middle Ages, medieval
students read such books as Porphyry's _Isagoge_, or Introduction to
Aristotle; the criticism of Aristotle's _Categories_, by Gilbert de la
Porree, known as the _Sex Principia_; the _Summulae Logicales_, a
semi-grammatical, semi-logical treatise by Petrus Hispanus (Pope John
XXI.); the _Parva Logicalia_ of Marsilius of Inghen; the _Labyrinthus_
and _Grecismus_ of Eberhard; the Scriptural commentaries of Nicolaus
de Lyra; the _Tractatus de Sphaera_, an astronomical work by a
thirteenth-century Scotsman, John Holywood (Joannes de Sacro Bosco);
and