confined to war and politics, still there are in it sufficient traces of
the operation of all those three causes towards their improvement in
knowledge and civilization.

That they operated in extending the progress of discovery and commerce is
evident. We have already remarked that from the earliest periods, the
commodities of the east attracted the desires of the western nations: the
Arabians, Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans of the ancient world; the
Italian and Hanseatic states of the middle ages, all endeavoured to enrich
themselves by trading in commodities so eagerly and universally desired. As
industry and skill increased, and as the means as well as the desire of
purchase and enjoyment spread, by the rise of a middle class in Europe, the
demand for these commodities extended. The productions and manufactures of
the north, as well as of the south of Europe, having been increased and
improved, enabled the inhabitants of these countries to participate in
those articles from India, which, among the ancients, had been confined
exclusively to the rich and powerful.

On the other hand, even at the very time that this enlarged demand for
Indian commodities was taking place in Europe, and was accompanied by
enlarged means as well as extended skill and expedience in discovery and
commerce,--at this very time obstacles arose which threatened the almost
entire exclusion of Europeans from the luxuries of Asia. It may well be
doubted, whether, if the enemies of the Christian faith had not gained
entire possession of all the routes to India, and moreover, if these routes
had been rendered more easy of access and passage, they could have long
supplied the increased demands of improving Europe. But that Europe should,
on the one hand, improve and feel enlarged desires as well as means of
purchasing the luxuries of the east, while on the other hand, the
practicability of acquiring these luxuries should diminish, formed a
coincidence of circumstances, which was sure to produce important results.

As access to India by land, or even by the Arabian Gulf by sea, was
rendered extremely difficult and hazardous by the enmity of the Mahometans,
or productive of little commercial benefit by their exactions, the
attention and hopes of European navigators were directed to a passage to
India along the western coast of Africa. As, however, the length and
difficulties of such a voyage were extremely formidable, it would probably
have been e